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+/**
+ * Javascript implementation of Abstract Syntax Notation Number One.
+ *
+ * @author Dave Longley
+ *
+ * Copyright (c) 2010-2015 Digital Bazaar, Inc.
+ *
+ * An API for storing data using the Abstract Syntax Notation Number One
+ * format using DER (Distinguished Encoding Rules) encoding. This encoding is
+ * commonly used to store data for PKI, i.e. X.509 Certificates, and this
+ * implementation exists for that purpose.
+ *
+ * Abstract Syntax Notation Number One (ASN.1) is used to define the abstract
+ * syntax of information without restricting the way the information is encoded
+ * for transmission. It provides a standard that allows for open systems
+ * communication. ASN.1 defines the syntax of information data and a number of
+ * simple data types as well as a notation for describing them and specifying
+ * values for them.
+ *
+ * The RSA algorithm creates public and private keys that are often stored in
+ * X.509 or PKCS#X formats -- which use ASN.1 (encoded in DER format). This
+ * class provides the most basic functionality required to store and load DSA
+ * keys that are encoded according to ASN.1.
+ *
+ * The most common binary encodings for ASN.1 are BER (Basic Encoding Rules)
+ * and DER (Distinguished Encoding Rules). DER is just a subset of BER that
+ * has stricter requirements for how data must be encoded.
+ *
+ * Each ASN.1 structure has a tag (a byte identifying the ASN.1 structure type)
+ * and a byte array for the value of this ASN1 structure which may be data or a
+ * list of ASN.1 structures.
+ *
+ * Each ASN.1 structure using BER is (Tag-Length-Value):
+ *
+ * | byte 0 | bytes X | bytes Y |
+ * |--------|---------|----------
+ * |  tag   | length  |  value  |
+ *
+ * ASN.1 allows for tags to be of "High-tag-number form" which allows a tag to
+ * be two or more octets, but that is not supported by this class. A tag is
+ * only 1 byte. Bits 1-5 give the tag number (ie the data type within a
+ * particular 'class'), 6 indicates whether or not the ASN.1 value is
+ * constructed from other ASN.1 values, and bits 7 and 8 give the 'class'. If
+ * bits 7 and 8 are both zero, the class is UNIVERSAL. If only bit 7 is set,
+ * then the class is APPLICATION. If only bit 8 is set, then the class is
+ * CONTEXT_SPECIFIC. If both bits 7 and 8 are set, then the class is PRIVATE.
+ * The tag numbers for the data types for the class UNIVERSAL are listed below:
+ *
+ * UNIVERSAL 0 Reserved for use by the encoding rules
+ * UNIVERSAL 1 Boolean type
+ * UNIVERSAL 2 Integer type
+ * UNIVERSAL 3 Bitstring type
+ * UNIVERSAL 4 Octetstring type
+ * UNIVERSAL 5 Null type
+ * UNIVERSAL 6 Object identifier type
+ * UNIVERSAL 7 Object descriptor type
+ * UNIVERSAL 8 External type and Instance-of type
+ * UNIVERSAL 9 Real type
+ * UNIVERSAL 10 Enumerated type
+ * UNIVERSAL 11 Embedded-pdv type
+ * UNIVERSAL 12 UTF8String type
+ * UNIVERSAL 13 Relative object identifier type
+ * UNIVERSAL 14-15 Reserved for future editions
+ * UNIVERSAL 16 Sequence and Sequence-of types
+ * UNIVERSAL 17 Set and Set-of types
+ * UNIVERSAL 18-22, 25-30 Character string types
+ * UNIVERSAL 23-24 Time types
+ *
+ * The length of an ASN.1 structure is specified after the tag identifier.
+ * There is a definite form and an indefinite form. The indefinite form may
+ * be used if the encoding is constructed and not all immediately available.
+ * The indefinite form is encoded using a length byte with only the 8th bit
+ * set. The end of the constructed object is marked using end-of-contents
+ * octets (two zero bytes).
+ *
+ * The definite form looks like this:
+ *
+ * The length may take up 1 or more bytes, it depends on the length of the
+ * value of the ASN.1 structure. DER encoding requires that if the ASN.1
+ * structure has a value that has a length greater than 127, more than 1 byte
+ * will be used to store its length, otherwise just one byte will be used.
+ * This is strict.
+ *
+ * In the case that the length of the ASN.1 value is less than 127, 1 octet
+ * (byte) is used to store the "short form" length. The 8th bit has a value of
+ * 0 indicating the length is "short form" and not "long form" and bits 7-1
+ * give the length of the data. (The 8th bit is the left-most, most significant
+ * bit: also known as big endian or network format).
+ *
+ * In the case that the length of the ASN.1 value is greater than 127, 2 to
+ * 127 octets (bytes) are used to store the "long form" length. The first
+ * byte's 8th bit is set to 1 to indicate the length is "long form." Bits 7-1
+ * give the number of additional octets. All following octets are in base 256
+ * with the most significant digit first (typical big-endian binary unsigned
+ * integer storage). So, for instance, if the length of a value was 257, the
+ * first byte would be set to:
+ *
+ * 10000010 = 130 = 0x82.
+ *
+ * This indicates there are 2 octets (base 256) for the length. The second and
+ * third bytes (the octets just mentioned) would store the length in base 256:
+ *
+ * octet 2: 00000001 = 1 * 256^1 = 256
+ * octet 3: 00000001 = 1 * 256^0 = 1
+ * total = 257
+ *
+ * The algorithm for converting a js integer value of 257 to base-256 is:
+ *
+ * var value = 257;
+ * var bytes = [];
+ * bytes[0] = (value >>> 8) & 0xFF; // most significant byte first
+ * bytes[1] = value & 0xFF;        // least significant byte last
+ *
+ * On the ASN.1 UNIVERSAL Object Identifier (OID) type:
+ *
+ * An OID can be written like: "value1.value2.value3...valueN"
+ *
+ * The DER encoding rules:
+ *
+ * The first byte has the value 40 * value1 + value2.
+ * The following bytes, if any, encode the remaining values. Each value is
+ * encoded in base 128, most significant digit first (big endian), with as
+ * few digits as possible, and the most significant bit of each byte set
+ * to 1 except the last in each value's encoding. For example: Given the
+ * OID "1.2.840.113549", its DER encoding is (remember each byte except the
+ * last one in each encoding is OR'd with 0x80):
+ *
+ * byte 1: 40 * 1 + 2 = 42 = 0x2A.
+ * bytes 2-3: 128 * 6 + 72 = 840 = 6 72 = 6 72 = 0x0648 = 0x8648
+ * bytes 4-6: 16384 * 6 + 128 * 119 + 13 = 6 119 13 = 0x06770D = 0x86F70D
+ *
+ * The final value is: 0x2A864886F70D.
+ * The full OID (including ASN.1 tag and length of 6 bytes) is:
+ * 0x06062A864886F70D
+ */
+var forge = require('./forge');
+require('./util');
+require('./oids');
+
+/* ASN.1 API */
+var asn1 = module.exports = forge.asn1 = forge.asn1 || {};
+
+/**
+ * ASN.1 classes.
+ */
+asn1.Class = {
+  UNIVERSAL:        0x00,
+  APPLICATION:      0x40,
+  CONTEXT_SPECIFIC: 0x80,
+  PRIVATE:          0xC0
+};
+
+/**
+ * ASN.1 types. Not all types are supported by this implementation, only
+ * those necessary to implement a simple PKI are implemented.
+ */
+asn1.Type = {
+  NONE:             0,
+  BOOLEAN:          1,
+  INTEGER:          2,
+  BITSTRING:        3,
+  OCTETSTRING:      4,
+  NULL:             5,
+  OID:              6,
+  ODESC:            7,
+  EXTERNAL:         8,
+  REAL:             9,
+  ENUMERATED:      10,
+  EMBEDDED:        11,
+  UTF8:            12,
+  ROID:            13,
+  SEQUENCE:        16,
+  SET:             17,
+  PRINTABLESTRING: 19,
+  IA5STRING:       22,
+  UTCTIME:         23,
+  GENERALIZEDTIME: 24,
+  BMPSTRING:       30
+};
+
+/**
+ * Creates a new asn1 object.
+ *
+ * @param tagClass the tag class for the object.
+ * @param type the data type (tag number) for the object.
+ * @param constructed true if the asn1 object is in constructed form.
+ * @param value the value for the object, if it is not constructed.
+ * @param [options] the options to use:
+ *          [bitStringContents] the plain BIT STRING content including padding
+ *            byte.
+ *
+ * @return the asn1 object.
+ */
+asn1.create = function(tagClass, type, constructed, value, options) {
+  /* An asn1 object has a tagClass, a type, a constructed flag, and a
+    value. The value's type depends on the constructed flag. If
+    constructed, it will contain a list of other asn1 objects. If not,
+    it will contain the ASN.1 value as an array of bytes formatted
+    according to the ASN.1 data type. */
+
+  // remove undefined values
+  if(forge.util.isArray(value)) {
+    var tmp = [];
+    for(var i = 0; i < value.length; ++i) {
+      if(value[i] !== undefined) {
+        tmp.push(value[i]);
+      }
+    }
+    value = tmp;
+  }
+
+  var obj = {
+    tagClass: tagClass,
+    type: type,
+    constructed: constructed,
+    composed: constructed || forge.util.isArray(value),
+    value: value
+  };
+  if(options && 'bitStringContents' in options) {
+    // TODO: copy byte buffer if it's a buffer not a string
+    obj.bitStringContents = options.bitStringContents;
+    // TODO: add readonly flag to avoid this overhead
+    // save copy to detect changes
+    obj.original = asn1.copy(obj);
+  }
+  return obj;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Copies an asn1 object.
+ *
+ * @param obj the asn1 object.
+ * @param [options] copy options:
+ *          [excludeBitStringContents] true to not copy bitStringContents
+ *
+ * @return the a copy of the asn1 object.
+ */
+asn1.copy = function(obj, options) {
+  var copy;
+
+  if(forge.util.isArray(obj)) {
+    copy = [];
+    for(var i = 0; i < obj.length; ++i) {
+      copy.push(asn1.copy(obj[i], options));
+    }
+    return copy;
+  }
+
+  if(typeof obj === 'string') {
+    // TODO: copy byte buffer if it's a buffer not a string
+    return obj;
+  }
+
+  copy = {
+    tagClass: obj.tagClass,
+    type: obj.type,
+    constructed: obj.constructed,
+    composed: obj.composed,
+    value: asn1.copy(obj.value, options)
+  };
+  if(options && !options.excludeBitStringContents) {
+    // TODO: copy byte buffer if it's a buffer not a string
+    copy.bitStringContents = obj.bitStringContents;
+  }
+  return copy;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Compares asn1 objects for equality.
+ *
+ * Note this function does not run in constant time.
+ *
+ * @param obj1 the first asn1 object.
+ * @param obj2 the second asn1 object.
+ * @param [options] compare options:
+ *          [includeBitStringContents] true to compare bitStringContents
+ *
+ * @return true if the asn1 objects are equal.
+ */
+asn1.equals = function(obj1, obj2, options) {
+  if(forge.util.isArray(obj1)) {
+    if(!forge.util.isArray(obj2)) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    if(obj1.length !== obj2.length) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    for(var i = 0; i < obj1.length; ++i) {
+      if(!asn1.equals(obj1[i], obj2[i])) {
+        return false;
+      }
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  if(typeof obj1 !== typeof obj2) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  if(typeof obj1 === 'string') {
+    return obj1 === obj2;
+  }
+
+  var equal = obj1.tagClass === obj2.tagClass &&
+    obj1.type === obj2.type &&
+    obj1.constructed === obj2.constructed &&
+    obj1.composed === obj2.composed &&
+    asn1.equals(obj1.value, obj2.value);
+  if(options && options.includeBitStringContents) {
+    equal = equal && (obj1.bitStringContents === obj2.bitStringContents);
+  }
+
+  return equal;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Gets the length of a BER-encoded ASN.1 value.
+ *
+ * In case the length is not specified, undefined is returned.
+ *
+ * @param b the BER-encoded ASN.1 byte buffer, starting with the first
+ *          length byte.
+ *
+ * @return the length of the BER-encoded ASN.1 value or undefined.
+ */
+asn1.getBerValueLength = function(b) {
+  // TODO: move this function and related DER/BER functions to a der.js
+  // file; better abstract ASN.1 away from der/ber.
+  var b2 = b.getByte();
+  if(b2 === 0x80) {
+    return undefined;
+  }
+
+  // see if the length is "short form" or "long form" (bit 8 set)
+  var length;
+  var longForm = b2 & 0x80;
+  if(!longForm) {
+    // length is just the first byte
+    length = b2;
+  } else {
+    // the number of bytes the length is specified in bits 7 through 1
+    // and each length byte is in big-endian base-256
+    length = b.getInt((b2 & 0x7F) << 3);
+  }
+  return length;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Check if the byte buffer has enough bytes. Throws an Error if not.
+ *
+ * @param bytes the byte buffer to parse from.
+ * @param remaining the bytes remaining in the current parsing state.
+ * @param n the number of bytes the buffer must have.
+ */
+function _checkBufferLength(bytes, remaining, n) {
+  if(n > remaining) {
+    var error = new Error('Too few bytes to parse DER.');
+    error.available = bytes.length();
+    error.remaining = remaining;
+    error.requested = n;
+    throw error;
+  }
+}
+
+/**
+ * Gets the length of a BER-encoded ASN.1 value.
+ *
+ * In case the length is not specified, undefined is returned.
+ *
+ * @param bytes the byte buffer to parse from.
+ * @param remaining the bytes remaining in the current parsing state.
+ *
+ * @return the length of the BER-encoded ASN.1 value or undefined.
+ */
+var _getValueLength = function(bytes, remaining) {
+  // TODO: move this function and related DER/BER functions to a der.js
+  // file; better abstract ASN.1 away from der/ber.
+  // fromDer already checked that this byte exists
+  var b2 = bytes.getByte();
+  remaining--;
+  if(b2 === 0x80) {
+    return undefined;
+  }
+
+  // see if the length is "short form" or "long form" (bit 8 set)
+  var length;
+  var longForm = b2 & 0x80;
+  if(!longForm) {
+    // length is just the first byte
+    length = b2;
+  } else {
+    // the number of bytes the length is specified in bits 7 through 1
+    // and each length byte is in big-endian base-256
+    var longFormBytes = b2 & 0x7F;
+    _checkBufferLength(bytes, remaining, longFormBytes);
+    length = bytes.getInt(longFormBytes << 3);
+  }
+  // FIXME: this will only happen for 32 bit getInt with high bit set
+  if(length < 0) {
+    throw new Error('Negative length: ' + length);
+  }
+  return length;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Parses an asn1 object from a byte buffer in DER format.
+ *
+ * @param bytes the byte buffer to parse from.
+ * @param [strict] true to be strict when checking value lengths, false to
+ *          allow truncated values (default: true).
+ * @param [options] object with options or boolean strict flag
+ *          [strict] true to be strict when checking value lengths, false to
+ *            allow truncated values (default: true).
+ *          [parseAllBytes] true to ensure all bytes are parsed
+ *            (default: true)
+ *          [decodeBitStrings] true to attempt to decode the content of
+ *            BIT STRINGs (not OCTET STRINGs) using strict mode. Note that
+ *            without schema support to understand the data context this can
+ *            erroneously decode values that happen to be valid ASN.1. This
+ *            flag will be deprecated or removed as soon as schema support is
+ *            available. (default: true)
+ *
+ * @throws Will throw an error for various malformed input conditions.
+ *
+ * @return the parsed asn1 object.
+ */
+asn1.fromDer = function(bytes, options) {
+  if(options === undefined) {
+    options = {
+      strict: true,
+      parseAllBytes: true,
+      decodeBitStrings: true
+    };
+  }
+  if(typeof options === 'boolean') {
+    options = {
+      strict: options,
+      parseAllBytes: true,
+      decodeBitStrings: true
+    };
+  }
+  if(!('strict' in options)) {
+    options.strict = true;
+  }
+  if(!('parseAllBytes' in options)) {
+    options.parseAllBytes = true;
+  }
+  if(!('decodeBitStrings' in options)) {
+    options.decodeBitStrings = true;
+  }
+
+  // wrap in buffer if needed
+  if(typeof bytes === 'string') {
+    bytes = forge.util.createBuffer(bytes);
+  }
+
+  var byteCount = bytes.length();
+  var value = _fromDer(bytes, bytes.length(), 0, options);
+  if(options.parseAllBytes && bytes.length() !== 0) {
+    var error = new Error('Unparsed DER bytes remain after ASN.1 parsing.');
+    error.byteCount = byteCount;
+    error.remaining = bytes.length();
+    throw error;
+  }
+  return value;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Internal function to parse an asn1 object from a byte buffer in DER format.
+ *
+ * @param bytes the byte buffer to parse from.
+ * @param remaining the number of bytes remaining for this chunk.
+ * @param depth the current parsing depth.
+ * @param options object with same options as fromDer().
+ *
+ * @return the parsed asn1 object.
+ */
+function _fromDer(bytes, remaining, depth, options) {
+  // temporary storage for consumption calculations
+  var start;
+
+  // minimum length for ASN.1 DER structure is 2
+  _checkBufferLength(bytes, remaining, 2);
+
+  // get the first byte
+  var b1 = bytes.getByte();
+  // consumed one byte
+  remaining--;
+
+  // get the tag class
+  var tagClass = (b1 & 0xC0);
+
+  // get the type (bits 1-5)
+  var type = b1 & 0x1F;
+
+  // get the variable value length and adjust remaining bytes
+  start = bytes.length();
+  var length = _getValueLength(bytes, remaining);
+  remaining -= start - bytes.length();
+
+  // ensure there are enough bytes to get the value
+  if(length !== undefined && length > remaining) {
+    if(options.strict) {
+      var error = new Error('Too few bytes to read ASN.1 value.');
+      error.available = bytes.length();
+      error.remaining = remaining;
+      error.requested = length;
+      throw error;
+    }
+    // Note: be lenient with truncated values and use remaining state bytes
+    length = remaining;
+  }
+
+  // value storage
+  var value;
+  // possible BIT STRING contents storage
+  var bitStringContents;
+
+  // constructed flag is bit 6 (32 = 0x20) of the first byte
+  var constructed = ((b1 & 0x20) === 0x20);
+  if(constructed) {
+    // parse child asn1 objects from the value
+    value = [];
+    if(length === undefined) {
+      // asn1 object of indefinite length, read until end tag
+      for(;;) {
+        _checkBufferLength(bytes, remaining, 2);
+        if(bytes.bytes(2) === String.fromCharCode(0, 0)) {
+          bytes.getBytes(2);
+          remaining -= 2;
+          break;
+        }
+        start = bytes.length();
+        value.push(_fromDer(bytes, remaining, depth + 1, options));
+        remaining -= start - bytes.length();
+      }
+    } else {
+      // parsing asn1 object of definite length
+      while(length > 0) {
+        start = bytes.length();
+        value.push(_fromDer(bytes, length, depth + 1, options));
+        remaining -= start - bytes.length();
+        length -= start - bytes.length();
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // if a BIT STRING, save the contents including padding
+  if(value === undefined && tagClass === asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL &&
+    type === asn1.Type.BITSTRING) {
+    bitStringContents = bytes.bytes(length);
+  }
+
+  // determine if a non-constructed value should be decoded as a composed
+  // value that contains other ASN.1 objects. BIT STRINGs (and OCTET STRINGs)
+  // can be used this way.
+  if(value === undefined && options.decodeBitStrings &&
+    tagClass === asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL &&
+    // FIXME: OCTET STRINGs not yet supported here
+    // .. other parts of forge expect to decode OCTET STRINGs manually
+    (type === asn1.Type.BITSTRING /*|| type === asn1.Type.OCTETSTRING*/) &&
+    length > 1) {
+    // save read position
+    var savedRead = bytes.read;
+    var savedRemaining = remaining;
+    var unused = 0;
+    if(type === asn1.Type.BITSTRING) {
+      /* The first octet gives the number of bits by which the length of the
+        bit string is less than the next multiple of eight (this is called
+        the "number of unused bits").
+
+        The second and following octets give the value of the bit string
+        converted to an octet string. */
+      _checkBufferLength(bytes, remaining, 1);
+      unused = bytes.getByte();
+      remaining--;
+    }
+    // if all bits are used, maybe the BIT/OCTET STRING holds ASN.1 objs
+    if(unused === 0) {
+      try {
+        // attempt to parse child asn1 object from the value
+        // (stored in array to signal composed value)
+        start = bytes.length();
+        var subOptions = {
+          // enforce strict mode to avoid parsing ASN.1 from plain data
+          strict: true,
+          decodeBitStrings: true
+        };
+        var composed = _fromDer(bytes, remaining, depth + 1, subOptions);
+        var used = start - bytes.length();
+        remaining -= used;
+        if(type == asn1.Type.BITSTRING) {
+          used++;
+        }
+
+        // if the data all decoded and the class indicates UNIVERSAL or
+        // CONTEXT_SPECIFIC then assume we've got an encapsulated ASN.1 object
+        var tc = composed.tagClass;
+        if(used === length &&
+          (tc === asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL || tc === asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC)) {
+          value = [composed];
+        }
+      } catch(ex) {
+      }
+    }
+    if(value === undefined) {
+      // restore read position
+      bytes.read = savedRead;
+      remaining = savedRemaining;
+    }
+  }
+
+  if(value === undefined) {
+    // asn1 not constructed or composed, get raw value
+    // TODO: do DER to OID conversion and vice-versa in .toDer?
+
+    if(length === undefined) {
+      if(options.strict) {
+        throw new Error('Non-constructed ASN.1 object of indefinite length.');
+      }
+      // be lenient and use remaining state bytes
+      length = remaining;
+    }
+
+    if(type === asn1.Type.BMPSTRING) {
+      value = '';
+      for(; length > 0; length -= 2) {
+        _checkBufferLength(bytes, remaining, 2);
+        value += String.fromCharCode(bytes.getInt16());
+        remaining -= 2;
+      }
+    } else {
+      value = bytes.getBytes(length);
+      remaining -= length;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // add BIT STRING contents if available
+  var asn1Options = bitStringContents === undefined ? null : {
+    bitStringContents: bitStringContents
+  };
+
+  // create and return asn1 object
+  return asn1.create(tagClass, type, constructed, value, asn1Options);
+}
+
+/**
+ * Converts the given asn1 object to a buffer of bytes in DER format.
+ *
+ * @param asn1 the asn1 object to convert to bytes.
+ *
+ * @return the buffer of bytes.
+ */
+asn1.toDer = function(obj) {
+  var bytes = forge.util.createBuffer();
+
+  // build the first byte
+  var b1 = obj.tagClass | obj.type;
+
+  // for storing the ASN.1 value
+  var value = forge.util.createBuffer();
+
+  // use BIT STRING contents if available and data not changed
+  var useBitStringContents = false;
+  if('bitStringContents' in obj) {
+    useBitStringContents = true;
+    if(obj.original) {
+      useBitStringContents = asn1.equals(obj, obj.original);
+    }
+  }
+
+  if(useBitStringContents) {
+    value.putBytes(obj.bitStringContents);
+  } else if(obj.composed) {
+    // if composed, use each child asn1 object's DER bytes as value
+    // turn on 6th bit (0x20 = 32) to indicate asn1 is constructed
+    // from other asn1 objects
+    if(obj.constructed) {
+      b1 |= 0x20;
+    } else {
+      // type is a bit string, add unused bits of 0x00
+      value.putByte(0x00);
+    }
+
+    // add all of the child DER bytes together
+    for(var i = 0; i < obj.value.length; ++i) {
+      if(obj.value[i] !== undefined) {
+        value.putBuffer(asn1.toDer(obj.value[i]));
+      }
+    }
+  } else {
+    // use asn1.value directly
+    if(obj.type === asn1.Type.BMPSTRING) {
+      for(var i = 0; i < obj.value.length; ++i) {
+        value.putInt16(obj.value.charCodeAt(i));
+      }
+    } else {
+      // ensure integer is minimally-encoded
+      // TODO: should all leading bytes be stripped vs just one?
+      // .. ex '00 00 01' => '01'?
+      if(obj.type === asn1.Type.INTEGER &&
+        obj.value.length > 1 &&
+        // leading 0x00 for positive integer
+        ((obj.value.charCodeAt(0) === 0 &&
+        (obj.value.charCodeAt(1) & 0x80) === 0) ||
+        // leading 0xFF for negative integer
+        (obj.value.charCodeAt(0) === 0xFF &&
+        (obj.value.charCodeAt(1) & 0x80) === 0x80))) {
+        value.putBytes(obj.value.substr(1));
+      } else {
+        value.putBytes(obj.value);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  // add tag byte
+  bytes.putByte(b1);
+
+  // use "short form" encoding
+  if(value.length() <= 127) {
+    // one byte describes the length
+    // bit 8 = 0 and bits 7-1 = length
+    bytes.putByte(value.length() & 0x7F);
+  } else {
+    // use "long form" encoding
+    // 2 to 127 bytes describe the length
+    // first byte: bit 8 = 1 and bits 7-1 = # of additional bytes
+    // other bytes: length in base 256, big-endian
+    var len = value.length();
+    var lenBytes = '';
+    do {
+      lenBytes += String.fromCharCode(len & 0xFF);
+      len = len >>> 8;
+    } while(len > 0);
+
+    // set first byte to # bytes used to store the length and turn on
+    // bit 8 to indicate long-form length is used
+    bytes.putByte(lenBytes.length | 0x80);
+
+    // concatenate length bytes in reverse since they were generated
+    // little endian and we need big endian
+    for(var i = lenBytes.length - 1; i >= 0; --i) {
+      bytes.putByte(lenBytes.charCodeAt(i));
+    }
+  }
+
+  // concatenate value bytes
+  bytes.putBuffer(value);
+  return bytes;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts an OID dot-separated string to a byte buffer. The byte buffer
+ * contains only the DER-encoded value, not any tag or length bytes.
+ *
+ * @param oid the OID dot-separated string.
+ *
+ * @return the byte buffer.
+ */
+asn1.oidToDer = function(oid) {
+  // split OID into individual values
+  var values = oid.split('.');
+  var bytes = forge.util.createBuffer();
+
+  // first byte is 40 * value1 + value2
+  bytes.putByte(40 * parseInt(values[0], 10) + parseInt(values[1], 10));
+  // other bytes are each value in base 128 with 8th bit set except for
+  // the last byte for each value
+  var last, valueBytes, value, b;
+  for(var i = 2; i < values.length; ++i) {
+    // produce value bytes in reverse because we don't know how many
+    // bytes it will take to store the value
+    last = true;
+    valueBytes = [];
+    value = parseInt(values[i], 10);
+    do {
+      b = value & 0x7F;
+      value = value >>> 7;
+      // if value is not last, then turn on 8th bit
+      if(!last) {
+        b |= 0x80;
+      }
+      valueBytes.push(b);
+      last = false;
+    } while(value > 0);
+
+    // add value bytes in reverse (needs to be in big endian)
+    for(var n = valueBytes.length - 1; n >= 0; --n) {
+      bytes.putByte(valueBytes[n]);
+    }
+  }
+
+  return bytes;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a DER-encoded byte buffer to an OID dot-separated string. The
+ * byte buffer should contain only the DER-encoded value, not any tag or
+ * length bytes.
+ *
+ * @param bytes the byte buffer.
+ *
+ * @return the OID dot-separated string.
+ */
+asn1.derToOid = function(bytes) {
+  var oid;
+
+  // wrap in buffer if needed
+  if(typeof bytes === 'string') {
+    bytes = forge.util.createBuffer(bytes);
+  }
+
+  // first byte is 40 * value1 + value2
+  var b = bytes.getByte();
+  oid = Math.floor(b / 40) + '.' + (b % 40);
+
+  // other bytes are each value in base 128 with 8th bit set except for
+  // the last byte for each value
+  var value = 0;
+  while(bytes.length() > 0) {
+    b = bytes.getByte();
+    value = value << 7;
+    // not the last byte for the value
+    if(b & 0x80) {
+      value += b & 0x7F;
+    } else {
+      // last byte
+      oid += '.' + (value + b);
+      value = 0;
+    }
+  }
+
+  return oid;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a UTCTime value to a date.
+ *
+ * Note: GeneralizedTime has 4 digits for the year and is used for X.509
+ * dates past 2049. Parsing that structure hasn't been implemented yet.
+ *
+ * @param utc the UTCTime value to convert.
+ *
+ * @return the date.
+ */
+asn1.utcTimeToDate = function(utc) {
+  /* The following formats can be used:
+
+    YYMMDDhhmmZ
+    YYMMDDhhmm+hh'mm'
+    YYMMDDhhmm-hh'mm'
+    YYMMDDhhmmssZ
+    YYMMDDhhmmss+hh'mm'
+    YYMMDDhhmmss-hh'mm'
+
+    Where:
+
+    YY is the least significant two digits of the year
+    MM is the month (01 to 12)
+    DD is the day (01 to 31)
+    hh is the hour (00 to 23)
+    mm are the minutes (00 to 59)
+    ss are the seconds (00 to 59)
+    Z indicates that local time is GMT, + indicates that local time is
+    later than GMT, and - indicates that local time is earlier than GMT
+    hh' is the absolute value of the offset from GMT in hours
+    mm' is the absolute value of the offset from GMT in minutes */
+  var date = new Date();
+
+  // if YY >= 50 use 19xx, if YY < 50 use 20xx
+  var year = parseInt(utc.substr(0, 2), 10);
+  year = (year >= 50) ? 1900 + year : 2000 + year;
+  var MM = parseInt(utc.substr(2, 2), 10) - 1; // use 0-11 for month
+  var DD = parseInt(utc.substr(4, 2), 10);
+  var hh = parseInt(utc.substr(6, 2), 10);
+  var mm = parseInt(utc.substr(8, 2), 10);
+  var ss = 0;
+
+  // not just YYMMDDhhmmZ
+  if(utc.length > 11) {
+    // get character after minutes
+    var c = utc.charAt(10);
+    var end = 10;
+
+    // see if seconds are present
+    if(c !== '+' && c !== '-') {
+      // get seconds
+      ss = parseInt(utc.substr(10, 2), 10);
+      end += 2;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // update date
+  date.setUTCFullYear(year, MM, DD);
+  date.setUTCHours(hh, mm, ss, 0);
+
+  if(end) {
+    // get +/- after end of time
+    c = utc.charAt(end);
+    if(c === '+' || c === '-') {
+      // get hours+minutes offset
+      var hhoffset = parseInt(utc.substr(end + 1, 2), 10);
+      var mmoffset = parseInt(utc.substr(end + 4, 2), 10);
+
+      // calculate offset in milliseconds
+      var offset = hhoffset * 60 + mmoffset;
+      offset *= 60000;
+
+      // apply offset
+      if(c === '+') {
+        date.setTime(+date - offset);
+      } else {
+        date.setTime(+date + offset);
+      }
+    }
+  }
+
+  return date;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a GeneralizedTime value to a date.
+ *
+ * @param gentime the GeneralizedTime value to convert.
+ *
+ * @return the date.
+ */
+asn1.generalizedTimeToDate = function(gentime) {
+  /* The following formats can be used:
+
+    YYYYMMDDHHMMSS
+    YYYYMMDDHHMMSS.fff
+    YYYYMMDDHHMMSSZ
+    YYYYMMDDHHMMSS.fffZ
+    YYYYMMDDHHMMSS+hh'mm'
+    YYYYMMDDHHMMSS.fff+hh'mm'
+    YYYYMMDDHHMMSS-hh'mm'
+    YYYYMMDDHHMMSS.fff-hh'mm'
+
+    Where:
+
+    YYYY is the year
+    MM is the month (01 to 12)
+    DD is the day (01 to 31)
+    hh is the hour (00 to 23)
+    mm are the minutes (00 to 59)
+    ss are the seconds (00 to 59)
+    .fff is the second fraction, accurate to three decimal places
+    Z indicates that local time is GMT, + indicates that local time is
+    later than GMT, and - indicates that local time is earlier than GMT
+    hh' is the absolute value of the offset from GMT in hours
+    mm' is the absolute value of the offset from GMT in minutes */
+  var date = new Date();
+
+  var YYYY = parseInt(gentime.substr(0, 4), 10);
+  var MM = parseInt(gentime.substr(4, 2), 10) - 1; // use 0-11 for month
+  var DD = parseInt(gentime.substr(6, 2), 10);
+  var hh = parseInt(gentime.substr(8, 2), 10);
+  var mm = parseInt(gentime.substr(10, 2), 10);
+  var ss = parseInt(gentime.substr(12, 2), 10);
+  var fff = 0;
+  var offset = 0;
+  var isUTC = false;
+
+  if(gentime.charAt(gentime.length - 1) === 'Z') {
+    isUTC = true;
+  }
+
+  var end = gentime.length - 5, c = gentime.charAt(end);
+  if(c === '+' || c === '-') {
+    // get hours+minutes offset
+    var hhoffset = parseInt(gentime.substr(end + 1, 2), 10);
+    var mmoffset = parseInt(gentime.substr(end + 4, 2), 10);
+
+    // calculate offset in milliseconds
+    offset = hhoffset * 60 + mmoffset;
+    offset *= 60000;
+
+    // apply offset
+    if(c === '+') {
+      offset *= -1;
+    }
+
+    isUTC = true;
+  }
+
+  // check for second fraction
+  if(gentime.charAt(14) === '.') {
+    fff = parseFloat(gentime.substr(14), 10) * 1000;
+  }
+
+  if(isUTC) {
+    date.setUTCFullYear(YYYY, MM, DD);
+    date.setUTCHours(hh, mm, ss, fff);
+
+    // apply offset
+    date.setTime(+date + offset);
+  } else {
+    date.setFullYear(YYYY, MM, DD);
+    date.setHours(hh, mm, ss, fff);
+  }
+
+  return date;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a date to a UTCTime value.
+ *
+ * Note: GeneralizedTime has 4 digits for the year and is used for X.509
+ * dates past 2049. Converting to a GeneralizedTime hasn't been
+ * implemented yet.
+ *
+ * @param date the date to convert.
+ *
+ * @return the UTCTime value.
+ */
+asn1.dateToUtcTime = function(date) {
+  // TODO: validate; currently assumes proper format
+  if(typeof date === 'string') {
+    return date;
+  }
+
+  var rval = '';
+
+  // create format YYMMDDhhmmssZ
+  var format = [];
+  format.push(('' + date.getUTCFullYear()).substr(2));
+  format.push('' + (date.getUTCMonth() + 1));
+  format.push('' + date.getUTCDate());
+  format.push('' + date.getUTCHours());
+  format.push('' + date.getUTCMinutes());
+  format.push('' + date.getUTCSeconds());
+
+  // ensure 2 digits are used for each format entry
+  for(var i = 0; i < format.length; ++i) {
+    if(format[i].length < 2) {
+      rval += '0';
+    }
+    rval += format[i];
+  }
+  rval += 'Z';
+
+  return rval;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a date to a GeneralizedTime value.
+ *
+ * @param date the date to convert.
+ *
+ * @return the GeneralizedTime value as a string.
+ */
+asn1.dateToGeneralizedTime = function(date) {
+  // TODO: validate; currently assumes proper format
+  if(typeof date === 'string') {
+    return date;
+  }
+
+  var rval = '';
+
+  // create format YYYYMMDDHHMMSSZ
+  var format = [];
+  format.push('' + date.getUTCFullYear());
+  format.push('' + (date.getUTCMonth() + 1));
+  format.push('' + date.getUTCDate());
+  format.push('' + date.getUTCHours());
+  format.push('' + date.getUTCMinutes());
+  format.push('' + date.getUTCSeconds());
+
+  // ensure 2 digits are used for each format entry
+  for(var i = 0; i < format.length; ++i) {
+    if(format[i].length < 2) {
+      rval += '0';
+    }
+    rval += format[i];
+  }
+  rval += 'Z';
+
+  return rval;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a javascript integer to a DER-encoded byte buffer to be used
+ * as the value for an INTEGER type.
+ *
+ * @param x the integer.
+ *
+ * @return the byte buffer.
+ */
+asn1.integerToDer = function(x) {
+  var rval = forge.util.createBuffer();
+  if(x >= -0x80 && x < 0x80) {
+    return rval.putSignedInt(x, 8);
+  }
+  if(x >= -0x8000 && x < 0x8000) {
+    return rval.putSignedInt(x, 16);
+  }
+  if(x >= -0x800000 && x < 0x800000) {
+    return rval.putSignedInt(x, 24);
+  }
+  if(x >= -0x80000000 && x < 0x80000000) {
+    return rval.putSignedInt(x, 32);
+  }
+  var error = new Error('Integer too large; max is 32-bits.');
+  error.integer = x;
+  throw error;
+};
+
+/**
+ * Converts a DER-encoded byte buffer to a javascript integer. This is
+ * typically used to decode the value of an INTEGER type.
+ *
+ * @param bytes the byte buffer.
+ *
+ * @return the integer.
+ */
+asn1.derToInteger = function(bytes) {
+  // wrap in buffer if needed
+  if(typeof bytes === 'string') {
+    bytes = forge.util.createBuffer(bytes);
+  }
+
+  var n = bytes.length() * 8;
+  if(n > 32) {
+    throw new Error('Integer too large; max is 32-bits.');
+  }
+  return bytes.getSignedInt(n);
+};
+
+/**
+ * Validates that the given ASN.1 object is at least a super set of the
+ * given ASN.1 structure. Only tag classes and types are checked. An
+ * optional map may also be provided to capture ASN.1 values while the
+ * structure is checked.
+ *
+ * To capture an ASN.1 value, set an object in the validator's 'capture'
+ * parameter to the key to use in the capture map. To capture the full
+ * ASN.1 object, specify 'captureAsn1'. To capture BIT STRING bytes, including
+ * the leading unused bits counter byte, specify 'captureBitStringContents'.
+ * To capture BIT STRING bytes, without the leading unused bits counter byte,
+ * specify 'captureBitStringValue'.
+ *
+ * Objects in the validator may set a field 'optional' to true to indicate
+ * that it isn't necessary to pass validation.
+ *
+ * @param obj the ASN.1 object to validate.
+ * @param v the ASN.1 structure validator.
+ * @param capture an optional map to capture values in.
+ * @param errors an optional array for storing validation errors.
+ *
+ * @return true on success, false on failure.
+ */
+asn1.validate = function(obj, v, capture, errors) {
+  var rval = false;
+
+  // ensure tag class and type are the same if specified
+  if((obj.tagClass === v.tagClass || typeof(v.tagClass) === 'undefined') &&
+    (obj.type === v.type || typeof(v.type) === 'undefined')) {
+    // ensure constructed flag is the same if specified
+    if(obj.constructed === v.constructed ||
+      typeof(v.constructed) === 'undefined') {
+      rval = true;
+
+      // handle sub values
+      if(v.value && forge.util.isArray(v.value)) {
+        var j = 0;
+        for(var i = 0; rval && i < v.value.length; ++i) {
+          rval = v.value[i].optional || false;
+          if(obj.value[j]) {
+            rval = asn1.validate(obj.value[j], v.value[i], capture, errors);
+            if(rval) {
+              ++j;
+            } else if(v.value[i].optional) {
+              rval = true;
+            }
+          }
+          if(!rval && errors) {
+            errors.push(
+              '[' + v.name + '] ' +
+              'Tag class "' + v.tagClass + '", type "' +
+              v.type + '" expected value length "' +
+              v.value.length + '", got "' +
+              obj.value.length + '"');
+          }
+        }
+      }
+
+      if(rval && capture) {
+        if(v.capture) {
+          capture[v.capture] = obj.value;
+        }
+        if(v.captureAsn1) {
+          capture[v.captureAsn1] = obj;
+        }
+        if(v.captureBitStringContents && 'bitStringContents' in obj) {
+          capture[v.captureBitStringContents] = obj.bitStringContents;
+        }
+        if(v.captureBitStringValue && 'bitStringContents' in obj) {
+          var value;
+          if(obj.bitStringContents.length < 2) {
+            capture[v.captureBitStringValue] = '';
+          } else {
+            // FIXME: support unused bits with data shifting
+            var unused = obj.bitStringContents.charCodeAt(0);
+            if(unused !== 0) {
+              throw new Error(
+                'captureBitStringValue only supported for zero unused bits');
+            }
+            capture[v.captureBitStringValue] = obj.bitStringContents.slice(1);
+          }
+        }
+      }
+    } else if(errors) {
+      errors.push(
+        '[' + v.name + '] ' +
+        'Expected constructed "' + v.constructed + '", got "' +
+        obj.constructed + '"');
+    }
+  } else if(errors) {
+    if(obj.tagClass !== v.tagClass) {
+      errors.push(
+        '[' + v.name + '] ' +
+        'Expected tag class "' + v.tagClass + '", got "' +
+        obj.tagClass + '"');
+    }
+    if(obj.type !== v.type) {
+      errors.push(
+        '[' + v.name + '] ' +
+        'Expected type "' + v.type + '", got "' + obj.type + '"');
+    }
+  }
+  return rval;
+};
+
+// regex for testing for non-latin characters
+var _nonLatinRegex = /[^\\u0000-\\u00ff]/;
+
+/**
+ * Pretty prints an ASN.1 object to a string.
+ *
+ * @param obj the object to write out.
+ * @param level the level in the tree.
+ * @param indentation the indentation to use.
+ *
+ * @return the string.
+ */
+asn1.prettyPrint = function(obj, level, indentation) {
+  var rval = '';
+
+  // set default level and indentation
+  level = level || 0;
+  indentation = indentation || 2;
+
+  // start new line for deep levels
+  if(level > 0) {
+    rval += '\n';
+  }
+
+  // create indent
+  var indent = '';
+  for(var i = 0; i < level * indentation; ++i) {
+    indent += ' ';
+  }
+
+  // print class:type
+  rval += indent + 'Tag: ';
+  switch(obj.tagClass) {
+  case asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL:
+    rval += 'Universal:';
+    break;
+  case asn1.Class.APPLICATION:
+    rval += 'Application:';
+    break;
+  case asn1.Class.CONTEXT_SPECIFIC:
+    rval += 'Context-Specific:';
+    break;
+  case asn1.Class.PRIVATE:
+    rval += 'Private:';
+    break;
+  }
+
+  if(obj.tagClass === asn1.Class.UNIVERSAL) {
+    rval += obj.type;
+
+    // known types
+    switch(obj.type) {
+    case asn1.Type.NONE:
+      rval += ' (None)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.BOOLEAN:
+      rval += ' (Boolean)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.INTEGER:
+      rval += ' (Integer)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.BITSTRING:
+      rval += ' (Bit string)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.OCTETSTRING:
+      rval += ' (Octet string)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.NULL:
+      rval += ' (Null)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.OID:
+      rval += ' (Object Identifier)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.ODESC:
+      rval += ' (Object Descriptor)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.EXTERNAL:
+      rval += ' (External or Instance of)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.REAL:
+      rval += ' (Real)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.ENUMERATED:
+      rval += ' (Enumerated)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.EMBEDDED:
+      rval += ' (Embedded PDV)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.UTF8:
+      rval += ' (UTF8)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.ROID:
+      rval += ' (Relative Object Identifier)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.SEQUENCE:
+      rval += ' (Sequence)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.SET:
+      rval += ' (Set)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.PRINTABLESTRING:
+      rval += ' (Printable String)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.IA5String:
+      rval += ' (IA5String (ASCII))';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.UTCTIME:
+      rval += ' (UTC time)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.GENERALIZEDTIME:
+      rval += ' (Generalized time)';
+      break;
+    case asn1.Type.BMPSTRING:
+      rval += ' (BMP String)';
+      break;
+    }
+  } else {
+    rval += obj.type;
+  }
+
+  rval += '\n';
+  rval += indent + 'Constructed: ' + obj.constructed + '\n';
+
+  if(obj.composed) {
+    var subvalues = 0;
+    var sub = '';
+    for(var i = 0; i < obj.value.length; ++i) {
+      if(obj.value[i] !== undefined) {
+        subvalues += 1;
+        sub += asn1.prettyPrint(obj.value[i], level + 1, indentation);
+        if((i + 1) < obj.value.length) {
+          sub += ',';
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    rval += indent + 'Sub values: ' + subvalues + sub;
+  } else {
+    rval += indent + 'Value: ';
+    if(obj.type === asn1.Type.OID) {
+      var oid = asn1.derToOid(obj.value);
+      rval += oid;
+      if(forge.pki && forge.pki.oids) {
+        if(oid in forge.pki.oids) {
+          rval += ' (' + forge.pki.oids[oid] + ') ';
+        }
+      }
+    }
+    if(obj.type === asn1.Type.INTEGER) {
+      try {
+        rval += asn1.derToInteger(obj.value);
+      } catch(ex) {
+        rval += '0x' + forge.util.bytesToHex(obj.value);
+      }
+    } else if(obj.type === asn1.Type.BITSTRING) {
+      // TODO: shift bits as needed to display without padding
+      if(obj.value.length > 1) {
+        // remove unused bits field
+        rval += '0x' + forge.util.bytesToHex(obj.value.slice(1));
+      } else {
+        rval += '(none)';
+      }
+      // show unused bit count
+      if(obj.value.length > 0) {
+        var unused = obj.value.charCodeAt(0);
+        if(unused == 1) {
+          rval += ' (1 unused bit shown)';
+        } else if(unused > 1) {
+          rval += ' (' + unused + ' unused bits shown)';
+        }
+      }
+    } else if(obj.type === asn1.Type.OCTETSTRING) {
+      if(!_nonLatinRegex.test(obj.value)) {
+        rval += '(' + obj.value + ') ';
+      }
+      rval += '0x' + forge.util.bytesToHex(obj.value);
+    } else if(obj.type === asn1.Type.UTF8) {
+      try {
+        rval += forge.util.decodeUtf8(obj.value);
+      } catch(e) {
+        if(e.message === 'URI malformed') {
+          rval +=
+            '0x' + forge.util.bytesToHex(obj.value) + ' (malformed UTF8)';
+        } else {
+          throw e;
+        }
+      }
+    } else if(obj.type === asn1.Type.PRINTABLESTRING ||
+      obj.type === asn1.Type.IA5String) {
+      rval += obj.value;
+    } else if(_nonLatinRegex.test(obj.value)) {
+      rval += '0x' + forge.util.bytesToHex(obj.value);
+    } else if(obj.value.length === 0) {
+      rval += '[null]';
+    } else {
+      rval += obj.value;
+    }
+  }
+
+  return rval;
+};